NOTE: Since writing this piece, I've heard back from several leading epigraphers. Roger Tomlin does not like it, for several reasons. Gwyn Davies Salway still favors ARMENIOS, saying -
"I have to say that I prefer the identification of Armenia as the destination for the Castus expeditionary force. To me, the work done identifying our man with other principals of Dalmatian origin and the network of interests that connected them seems very plausible.
And I would also prefer the simplestof interpretations for the missing text in the inscription with 'Armenios' better fitting both the space and likely context for the conflicts of the period. Also, given that after this posting he becomes procurator of Prov. Lib (which is a short-lived admin entity), it seems unlikely to me that he was still in Britain during the trouble in 180-184."
I continue to hold with Armenia because I cannot square anything else with the probable foundation date of Liburnia.
But Lawrence Keppie says -
"Your restoration of 'armatas gentes' strikes me, a one-time Latinist, as improbably vague. Usually one expects the name of a town, a tribe, a province etc. So I opt for Armorica, though I couldn't find any epigraphic attestation for this word. I assume you have long since looked at the Clauss-Slaby and Heidelberg epigraphic databases. I wondered if there was any archaeological support for destruction in Armorica at this time. My contemporary and old friend John Drinkwater, the top expert on Gaul, would be the person to consult." [I've just written to Drinkwater on this matter.]
I once made a strong case for Armorica:
Benet Salway still insists on a date from AD 193-235 or up to a decade or so later, but remains noncommital as to the proper reconstruction for the ARM[...]S lacuna.
As I hear from more scholars on the issue, I will post their comments here.
"... AGAINST ARMED TRIBES"
When I first read the fragmentary memorial inscription of L. Artorius Castus, I assumed the action described by this man as dux must have occurred in Northern Britain.
Why did I assume that?
Because during the period we are talking about (the stone, based upon the consensus of leading scholars, is dated from the late Antonine to early Severan) the Sixth legion, based at York, was a northward-oriented force. Essentially, it was the job of the Sixth to keep back the tribes of the North. Given that Castus was the prefect of this legion, it was difficult for me to imagine him leading legionary forces anywhere but to Northern Britain.
Because during the period we are talking about (the stone, based upon the consensus of leading scholars, is dated from the late Antonine to early Severan) the Sixth legion, based at York, was a northward-oriented force. Essentially, it was the job of the Sixth to keep back the tribes of the North. Given that Castus was the prefect of this legion, it was difficult for me to imagine him leading legionary forces anywhere but to Northern Britain.
Indeed, other than the temporary transfer of the legion to the Continent by Albinus in 169 A.D., and its permanent withdrawalfrom the privince in the early 5th century, there is no evidence the legion or even a part of it had ever left Britain.
However, various scholars had proposed readings for "ARM[...]S" that led us quite far from a British military mission.
First, there was the possibility that ARMORICOS (which I was the first to show could actually fit on the stone with allowable ligatures) should be inserted. People pointed to the Deserters' War in Gallia Lugdunensis. The problem with this solution is that there is no evidence whatsoever that all of Armorica was rebelling from Rome. Instead, we had a mix of deserters, bandits, other criminals, runaway slaves, gladiators, peasant farmers and the like. These were a public enemy or latrones; they were not an Armorican uprising.
Second - and this is still an excellent possibility - is ARMENIOS. We know the Roman governor of Britain Statius Priscus was sent to command the army in Armenia in the 160s. Research also appears to show that the province of Liburnia, over which Castus was made procurator, was founded not long after the successful completion of the Armenian War. The fact that Castus was provided with ius gladii suggests an emergency situation and that seems to only fit this early proposed foundation of Liburnia. The problem with the Armenia idea is that the country is question is, indeed, distant from Britain. In fact, it lies at the opposite end of the Roman world. While it does not seem unreasonable to have Priscus take some troops with him (as troops were drawn from the Rhine and the Danube), we might wonder why the leader of those troops was the prefect of the legion in charge of defending the north of the British province. We are told that at this time problems were brewing in Britain. Still, Dalmatian connections for Castus and his superiors continues to point rather strongly to Armenia. I personally continue to favor this reading for ARM[...]S.
Other readings for ARM[...]S have failed. ARMATOS in isolation, for instance, is considered unsatisfactory. As 'armed men', it does not tell us who these armed men are or where they are to be found. Professor Roger Tomlin thinks no Roman military officer would state that he had led forces against armed men. That his enemy was armed would be assumed and not need to be stated. So the term is too vague, ambiguous, nonspecific, etc.
The funny thing about the human brain is that it tends to shut itself up in a box. In looking at ARM[...]S again the other day, I decided to ask a rather simple, obvious question: why are we restricting ourselves to just one word in the lacuna? Might there not be two words here, one perhaps being abbreviated?
With that thought in mind, I began looking for words that might fit and make sense in the context of the inscription. Again and again I struck out. I had almost given up when I realized I had missed something. I had initially dispensed with gentes, 'tribes', because it wouldn't fit. And then I saw the splendid NTE ligature used for CENT just a little farther along in the same line as ARM[...]S.
Guess what? Allowing for ARMATAS GENTES, 'armed tribes', written as ARM/GENTES with the NTE ligature, fit perfectly!
I could not find armatas abbreviated, but I did find quite a few other arm- words abbreviated as ARM:
Armatas gentes itself could be found in Classical sources:
I then needed to ask the professionals whether this formation might work.
This from Dr. Benet Salway:
"Armatas gentes” means “armed tribes” (accusative). The more natural word order would indeed be “gentes armatas” (noun followed by adjective) and I have found that order in some medieval Latin texts. But, as shown by the examples in Livy, in literary Latin it is acceptable to reverse the order. And, as a result of the possible familiarity of the Livian usage, the rather unusual adjective-noun order in this phrase may have had some recognition."
From Professor Roger Tomlin:
"ARMATAS GENTES is an acceptable phrase, of course."
Having established that ARMATAS GENTES was possible for the inscription, the next step was to see if I could figure out what historically known event could be identified with the action Castus describes on his stone.
We can begin by going back to what I believed at the very beginning: his dux mission was in Britain. An armatas gentes, 'armed tribes' reading, involving a prefect of the Sixth leading legionary forces (probably the entire Sixth legion plus generous vexillations of the other two), could only refer to tribes in the North of Britain.
We know of two major campaigns in the North for the period under discussion. In the second, Emperor Severus launched a huge war against the confederated tribes of the Caledonii and the Maeatae. While Dio claims 50,000 Romans died in this war, Simon Elliot (in his SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS IN SCOTLAND: THE NORTHERN CAMPAIGNS OF THE FIRST HAMMER OF THE SCOTS) has shown that this is an error. Instead, 50,000 is the total number of soldiers Severus assembled for the invasion.
Nothing in the account describing Severus's war mentions the deaths of legates, etc. For Castus to have led such a force north suggests the legate of the Sixth was dead or otherwise incapacitated.
If we go instead to the British victory in the North under Commodus, we have a reference to a general who fell before tribesmen at the Wall (which wall is meant is still being debated; it is now generally thought to be Hadrian's). The debate as to whether this general was a governor or a legate of the Sixth continued for some time, but scholarly consensus now holds to the notion that it was a legate who perished.
From Anthony Birley's THE ROMAN GOVERNMENT OF BRITAIN, pp. 166-7:
And from Patricia Southern's Hadrian's Wall: Everyday Life on a Roman Frontier, Amberley Publishing Limited, Feb 15, 2016:
Way back in 2021, I had floated the idea that Castus as camp prefect had replaced the fallen legate:
https://mistshadows.blogspot.com/2021/05/the-strategos-and-lucius-artorius.html?m=1
https://mistshadows.blogspot.com/2021/05/the-strategos-and-lucius-artorius.html?m=1
Unfortunately, I had not come up with a reading for ARM[...]S that would allow such an interpretation of Castus's dux mission.
I now have a reading that will do just that.
After the victory against the Northern tribes under the governorship of Ulpius Marcellus, matters got out of hand in Britain. Mutiny occurred and Ulpius was removed. He seems to have been in some danger of being punished, but escaped that fate. We know that eventually things were so bad that the legions tried to raise a certain Priscus to the purple. He refused, but their attempt caused the Praetorian Prefect Perennis to remove the senatorial legates and replace them with knights (like Castus). The British soldiers didn't like this and sent a large escort (possibly because they had to pass through territory convulsed by the Deserters' War) with the removed senators to Rome. There they demanded an end to Perennis and Commodus obliged them.
What we must ask at this juncture is what happened to Castus after the great northern victory that permitted Commodus to assume the Britannicus title. If this prefect of the Sixth really was the officer who replaced the fallen legate of the Sixth, then his next appointment as procurator with ius gladii looks very much like a reward posting. It does not look like a position granted to a mutinous soldier.
I would guess that the new posting came immediately after Castus led the legionary forces to victory in the North. Certainly, there is nothing whatsoever on the stone to suggest that Castus fought against mutinous troops. Had he done so we would have a phrase in the inscription with the word seditiosos, 'mutineers', or seditionem, 'mutiny'. Rebellles would have been used of rebellious tribes within the province, while hostes would have been used for those outside of it. A proclamation of Hostes publicus, 'public enemy', was used for the deserters of the Deserters' War.
It is sad that we lack details of the successful British campaign under Commodus. We only know it was declared a great victory. Had Castus been a major part of that victory, we might understand how the Artorius name became imprinted on the North.
NOTE:
Some examples of gentis/gentes used with adjectives in inscriptions:
publication: CIL 03, 00247 = D 00754 = IIulian 00020 = BritRom-14, 00017 = AE 2019, +01631 = GLIA-02, 00332
dating: 362 to 362 EDCS-ID: EDCS-22300504
province: Galatia place: Ankara / Ancyra
Domino totius orbis / Iuliano Augusto / ex Oceano Bri/tannico vi(i)s per / barbaras gentes / strage resistenti/um patefactis adus/que Tigridem una / aestate transvec/to Saturninius / Secundus v(ir) c(larissimus) praef(ectus) / praet(orio) [d(evotus)] N(umini) m(aiestati)q(ue) [ei(us)]
inscription genus / personal status: Augusti/Augustae; ordo senatorius; tituli honorarii; tituli sacri; tria nomina; viri
material: lapis
publication: CIL 03, p 0774 (p 1054, 2328,57) = IGRRP-03, 00159 = IDRE-02, 00394 = Scheid = Cooley-2012a = GLIA-01, 00001 = AE 2007, +00036 = AE 2007, +00037 = AE 2009, +00035 = AE 2013, +00004 = AE 2013, +00005 = AE 2014, +00010 = ZPE-220-281 = AE 2021, 012097
dating: 14 to 14 EDCS-ID: EDCS-20200013
province: Galatia place: Ankara / Ancyra
Rerum gestarum divi Augusti quibus orbem terra[rum] imperio populi Rom(ani) / subiecit et i<m=N>pensarum quas in rem publicam populumque Romanum fecit incisarum / in duabus aheneis pilis quae su[n]t Romae positae exemplar sub[i]ectum // [1] Annos undeviginti natus exercitum privato consilio et privata impensa / comparavi per quem rem publicam a dominatione factionis oppressam / in libertatem vindicavi eo [nomi]ne senatus decretis honorif[i]ci(i)s in / ordinem suum m[e adlegit C(aio) Pansa et C(aio) Hirt]io consulibus consula/rem locum s[ententiae dicendae simu]l [dans et i]mperium mihi dedit / res publica n[e quid detrimenti caperet] me pro praetore simul cum / consulibus pro[videre iussit p]opulus autem eodem anno me / consulem cum [consul uterqu]e in bel[lo ceci]disset et triumvirum rei publi/cae constituend[ae creavit] / [2] qui parentem meum [trucidaver]un[t eo]s in exilium expuli iudiciis legi/timis ultus eorum [fa]cin[us] et postea bellum inferentis rei publicae / vici b[is a]cie / [3] [b]ella terra et mari c[ivilia ex]ternaque toto in orbe terrarum s[aepe gessi] / victorque omnibus v[eniam petentib]us civibus peperci exter[nas] / gentes
publication: CIL 03, p 0774 (p 1054, 2328,57) = IGRRP-03, 00159 = IDRE-02, 00394 = Scheid = Cooley-2012a = GLIA-01, 00001 = AE 2007, +00036 = AE 2007, +00037 = AE 2009, +00035 = AE 2013, +00004 = AE 2013, +00005 = AE 2014, +00010 = ZPE-220-281 = AE 2021, 012097
dating: 14 to 14 EDCS-ID: EDCS-20200013
province: Galatia place: Ankara / Ancyra
exter[nas] / gentes
hostium gentis utr[ius]que cop[iae] / caesae sunt in acie et com[plu]ra oppida capta in Aethiopiam usque ad oppi/dum Nabata perventu[m] est cui proxima est Meroe in Arabiam usque / in fines Sabaeorum pro[ces]sit exercitus ad oppidum Mariba / [27] Aegyptum imperio populi [Ro]mani adieci Armeniam maiorem inter/fecto rege eius Artaxe c[u]m possem facere provinciam malui maiorum / nostrorum exemplo regnum id Tigrani regis Artavasdis filio nepoti au/tem Tigranis regis per T[i(berium) N]eronem tradere qui tum mihi privignus erat / et eandem gentem postea d[e]sciscentem et rebellantem domitam per Gaium / filium meum regi Ariobarzani regis Medorum Artaba[zi] filio regen/dam tradidi et post eius mortem filio eius Artavasdi quo [i]nterfecto Ti[gra]/ne(m) qui erat ex regio genere Armeniorum oriundus in id regnum misi pro/vincias omnis quae trans {H}Adrianum mare vergunt ad orien[te]m Cyre/nasque iam ex parte magna regibus eas possidentibus et antea Siciliam et / Sardiniam occupatas bello servili reciperavi / [28] colonias in Africa Sicilia Macedonia utraque Hispania Achai[a] Asia S[y]ria / Gallia Narbonensi Pi[si]dia militum deduxi Italia autem XXVIII [colo]ni/as quae vivo me celeberrimae et frequentissimae fuerunt me[a auctoritate] / deductas habet / [29] signa militaria complur[a p]er alios d[u]ces amissa devicti[s ho]st[ibu]s re[cipe]/ravi ex Hispania et [Gallia et a Dalm]ateis Parthos trium exercitu(u)m Romano/rum spolia et signa re[ddere] mihi supplicesque amicitiam populi Romani / petere coegi ea autem si[gn]a in penetrali quod est in templo Martis Ultoris / reposui / [30] Pannoniorum gentes qua[s] ante me principem populi Romani exercitus nun/quam adit devictas per Ti(berium) [Ne]ronem qui tum erat privignus et legatus meus / imperio populi Romani s[ubie]ci protulique fines Illyrici ad ripam fluminis / Danu(v)i citr[a] quod [D]a[cor]u[m tr]ansgressus exercitus meis ausp[iciis vict]us profliga/tusque [es]t et pos[tea tran]s Da[n]u(v)ium ductus ex[ercitus me]u[s] Dacorum / gentes
aliae gentes exper[tae sunt p(opuli) Ro]m(ani) fidem me prin/cipe quibus antea cum populo Roman[o nullum extitera]t legationum / et amicitiae commercium / [33] a me gentes Parthorum et Medorum
publication: AntAfr-2002/03-1210 = D 08959 = AE 1907, 00159 = AE 2003, 02024 EDCS-ID: EDCS-30100148
province: Mauretania Caesariensis place: Ain Roua / Ain Rua / Horrea
] / Bavarum gentes
publication: CIL 08, 08379 = CIL 08, 20216 = AE 1893, +00066 EDCS-ID: EDCS-24400867
province: Mauretania Caesariensis place: Fdoules
CE[3] in monti [3]VX piges [3]SAR OBL consu[3]/erbus et rex gentis VCVTAMANIIVGIII[3]/ontinens / omnes (h)onestos gentis
publication: D 09351 = CLE 01916 = ILCV 00779 (add) = BCTH-1976/78-152 = BCTH-1990/92-160 = CLEAfr-01, p 120 = CLENuovo p 138 = Hamdoune-2016, p 169 = AfrRom-19-1000 = AE 1901, 00150 = AE 1993, +01780 = AE 2016, +01832
dating: 370 to 370 EDCS-ID: EDCS-16800401
province: Mauretania Caesariensis place: Ighzer Amokrane / Fundus Petrensis
Praesidium aeternae firmat prudentia pacis / rem quoque Romanam fida tutat undique dextra / amni praepositum firmans munimine montem / e cuius nomen vocitavit nomine Petram / denique finitimae gentes
publication: ILCV 00055 (add, em) = CLE 01394 = AE 2001, +00179 EDCS-ID: EDCS-23500692
province: Roma place: Roma
Culmen opes subolem pollentia regna triumphos / exubias proceres moenia castra Lares / quasque patrum virtus et quae congesserat ipse / Ceadual armipotens liquit amore dei / ut Petrum sedemq(ue) Petri rex cerneret hospes / cuius fonte meras sumeret almus aquas / splendificumque iubar radianti carperet haustu / ex quo vivificus fulgor ubiq(ue) fluit / percipiensq(ue) alacer redivivae praemia vitae / barbaricam rabiem nomen et inde suum / conversus convertit ovans Petrumq(ue) vocari / Sergius antistes iussit ut ipse pater / fonte renascentis quem Chr(ist)i gratia purgans / protinus albatum vexit in arce poli / mira fides regis clementia maxima Chr(ist)i / cuius consilium nullus adire potest / sospes enim veniens supremo ex orbe Britann(us) / per varias gentes
publication: CIL 03, p 0774 (p 1054, 2328,57) = IGRRP-03, 00159 = IDRE-02, 00394 = Scheid = Cooley-2012a = GLIA-01, 00001 = AE 2007, +00036 = AE 2007, +00037 = AE 2009, +00035 = AE 2013, +00004 = AE 2013, +00005 = AE 2014, +00010 = ZPE-220-281 = AE 2021, 012097
dating: 14 to 14 EDCS-ID: EDCS-20200013
province: Galatia place: Ankara / Ancyra
hostium gentis
publication: AE 2010, 01426 = CERom-30, 01473
dating: 301 to 305 EDCS-ID: EDCS-59600036
province: Moesia inferior place: Murighiol / Halmyris
post debell]atas [hostium gentes profuturum i]n ae[ternum rei publicae praesidium constituerunt(?)]
inscription genus / personal status: Augusti/Augustae; tituli honorarii; tituli operum; viri
material: lapis
publication: GLIHalmyris 00002
dating: 301 to 305 EDCS-ID: EDCS-58800092
province: Moesia inferior place: Murighiol / Halmyris
[Impp(eratoribus) Caess(aribus) C(aio) Aur(elio) Val(erio) Diocletiano] / [et M(arco) Aur(elio) Val(erio) Maximiano Piis Fel(icibus) Invictis Augg(ustis)] / [et Fl(avio) Val(erio) Constantio et Gal(erio) Val(erio) Maximiano] / [nobb(ilissimis) Caess(aribus) Germanicis max(imis) Gothicis max(imis)] / [Sarmaticis max(imis) Britannicis max(imis) Persicis / [max(imis) post debell]atas [hostium gentes] / [profuturum i]n ae[ternum rei publicae] / [praesidium constituerunt]
inscription genus / personal status: Augusti/Augustae; tituli operum; viri
publication: GLIHalmyris 00003
dating: 301 to 305 EDCS-ID: EDCS-58800093
province: Moesia inferior place: Murighiol / Halmyris
[Impp(eratoribus) Caess(aribus) C(aio) Aur(elio) Val(erio) Diocletiano] / [et M(arco) Aur(elio) Val(erio) Maximiano Piis Fel(icibus) Invictis Au]gg(ustis) et / [Fl(avio) Val(erio) Constantio et Gal(erio) Val(erio) Maximiano] / [nobb(ilissimis) Caess(aribus) Germanicis max(imis) Gothicis max(imis)] / [Sarmaticis max(imis) Britannicis max(imis) Persicis] / [max(imis) post debellatas hostium gentes] / [profuturum in aeternum rei publicae] / [praesidium constituerunt]
inscription genus / personal status: Augusti/Augustae; tituli operum; viri
material: lapis
publication: ZPE-119-228 = GLIHalmyris 00001 = CERom-16, 00720 = CERom-18, 00812 = Actes-11-2, p 556 = AE 1995, 01345 = AE 1997, 01318 = AE 1999, +01323 = AE 2003, +01550
dating: 301 to 305 EDCS-ID: EDCS-03300824
province: Moesia inferior place: Murighiol / Halmyris
[Impp(eratoribus) Caess(aribus) C(aio) Aur(elio) Val(erio) Diocletiano] / [et M(arco) Aur(elio) Val(erio) Maximiano Piis Fel(icibus) Invictis Augg(ustis)] / [et Fl(avio) Val(erio) Constantio et Gal(erio) Val(erio)] Maximia[no] / [nobb(ilissimis) Caess(aribus) Germanicis max(imis) Got]hicis max(imis) / [Sarmaticis max(imis) Britannicis] max(imis) Persicis / [max(imis) post debellatas hosti]um gentes / [profuturum in aeternu]m rei publicae / [praesidium constitue]r[unt]
inscription genus / personal status: Augusti/Augustae; tituli operum; viri
material: lapis
publication: Actes-11-2, p 555 = Kaschuba-1994, 00067
dating: 298 to 299 EDCS-ID: EDCS-71800006
province: Moesia inferior place: Ruse / Russe / Sexaginta Prista / Sexaginta Prisca
Imperatores Caes[s(ares)] Gaius Aur(elius) Val(erius) Diocletianus et M(arcus) A[u]r(elius) Val(erius) / Maximianus Pii Fel(ices) Invicti Aug[g(usti) et Fl(avius)] / Val(erius) Constantius et Ga[l(erius)] Val(erius) Maximianus [nobb(ilissimi)] Caes[s(ares)] / Germanici maximi [V] Sarmat(ici) maxim[i IIII] Persici m[ax(imi) II] / Brit{t}annici [max(imi)] post debellat(as) hostium gent(es) / confirmata [or]bi s[u]o tranquillitate profuturum in aeternum rei publicae / praesidium constituerunt
inscription genus / personal status: Augusti/Augustae; milites; tituli operum; viri
publication: IScM-04, 00089 = Actes-11-2, p 555 = AE 1936, 00010 = AE 1999, +01323 = Kaschuba-1994, 00068
dating: 292 to 299 EDCS-ID: EDCS-16000029
province: Moesia inferior place: Silistra / Silistria / Durostorum
[Impp(eratores) Caess(ares) C(aius) Aur(elius) Val(erius) D]iocletianus / [et M(arcus) Aur(elius) Val(erius) Maximianu]s PP(ii) FF(elices) Invict[i] / [Augg(usti) et Fl(avius) Val(erius) Constanti]us et Gal(erius) Val(erius) / [Maximianus nobbilissimi] Caess(ares) German(ici) / [max(imi) V Sarmat(ici) max(imi) III]I Gothici max(imi) / [Britan(nici) max(imi) post debella]tas hosti(u)m / [gentes confirmata orbi su]o tr[anquil]/[litate in aeternum rei publicae praesi]/[dium constituerunt]
inscription genus / personal status: Augusti/Augustae; tituli operum; viri
material: lapis
publication: CIL 03, 06151 (p 1349) = D 00641 = Actes-11-2, p 555 = AE 1966, 00357 = AE 1999, +01323 = Kaschuba-1994, 00069
dating: 294 to 299 EDCS-ID: EDCS-27800928
province: Moesia inferior place: Tutrakan / Transmarisca
Imperatores Caess(ares) Gaius Aur(elius) Val(erius) Diocletianus / et M(arcus) Aur(elius) Val(erius) Maximianus Pii Fel(ices) Invicti Augg(usti) et Fl(avius) Val(erius) / Constantius et Gal(erius) Val(erius) Maximianus nobb(ilissimi) Caess(ares) Germani/ci maximi V Sarmat(ici) maximi IIII Persici max(imi) II Brit{t}an(n)ici maximi / post debellatis hos[tium] gent<e=I>s confirmata orbi suo / [tranquillitate profuturum in aeternum rei publi]cae praesidiu/[m constituerunt]
inscription genus / personal status: Augusti/Augustae; tituli operum; viri
material: lapis
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