Veteres and the Cugerni Tribe: a Final Identification of the German God in Northern England

Map Courtesy https://www.livius.org/pictures/a/maps/map-of-xanten/

Over the years I have wrestled with several possible etymologies and origins for the god Veteres, found worshipped in the frontier zone along Hadrian's Wall.  Being an avowed Celtophile, it has always been my tendency to resort to Celtic solutions to such riddles.  But as is often the case in the very cosmopolitan Roman world, better explanations can reveal themselves - once we can get past our personal biases.

Years ago I wrote the following on Veteres:

The H- spellings of Veteris are listed in Guy de la Bedoyere’s “Gods and Goddesses of Roman Britain”:

Hveterus/Hviteres, and variants.

Carrawburgh: altar to the Hviteres. RIB 1549

Hadrian's Wall (exact location unknown): altar to the Hvitires. RIB 2069

Housesteads: altar to Hveteris by Superstes and Regulus. RIB 1602

Housesteads: altar to Hvitris by Aspuanis. RIB 1603

Netherby: altars to Hveterus and Hvetirus. RIB 969 and 973

The other forms/spellings, and distribution of the dedications (from the same source), are as follows:

Veter/Veteres/Vheteris/Viter/Vitiris/Votris, variously male or female, singular or plural, and numerous other variants.

Benwell: altar to Vetris. RIB 1335

Benwell: altar to the Vitires. RIB 1336

Carrawburgh: altar to Veteris by Uccus. RIB 1548

Carvoran: altar to Veteris by Necalames. RIB 1793

Carvoran: altar to Veteris by Necalames. RIB 1794

Carvoran: altar to Vetiris by Julius Pastor, imaginifer of cohors II Delmatarum. RIB 1795

Carvoran: altar to Vetiris by Andiatis. RIB 1796

Carvoran: altar to Veteris. RIB 1797

Carvoran: altar to Viteris. RIB 1798

Carvoran: altar to Vitiris by Menius Dada. RIB 1799

Carvoran: altar to Vitiris by Milus and Aurides. RIB 1800

Carvoran: altar to Vitiris by Ne[ca]limes (sic, but see 1793-4 above). RIB 1801

Carvoran: altars to the Veteres. RIB 1802-4

Carvoran: altar to the Vitires by Deccius. RIB 1805

Catterick: altar to Vheteris by Aurelius Mucianus. RIB 727

Chester-le-Street: altar to Vitiris by Duihno. RIB 1046

Chester-le-Street: altar to the goddesses the Vitires by Vitalis. RIB 1047

Chester-le-Street: altar to the goddesses the Vit(ires). RIB 1048

Chesters: altar to Vitiris by Tertulus. RIB 1455

Chesters: altar to the Veteres. RIB 1456

Chesters: altar to Vitiris. RIB 1457

Chesters: altar to Votris. RIB 1458

Corbridge: altar to Vetiris. RIB 1139

Corbridge: altar to Vitiris. RIB 1140

Corbridge: altar to Vit(iris) by Mitius. RIB 1141

Ebchester: altar to Vitiris by Maximus. RIB 1103

Ebchester: altar to Vitiris. RIB 1104

Greatchesters: altar to Vetiris. RIB 1728

Greatchesters: altar to the Veteres by Romana. RIB 1729

Greatchesters: altar to the Veteres. RIB 1730

Hadrian's Wall (exact location unknown): altar to Veteris. RIB 2068

Housesteads: altar to the Veteres. RIB 1604

Housesteads: altar to the Veteres. RIB 1605

Housesteads: altar to the Veteres by Aurelius Victor. RIB 1606

Lanchester: altar to Vit(iris). RIB 1087

Lanchester: altar to Vitiris by [....], princeps. RIB 1088

Piercebridge: altar to Veteris. Brit. v (1974), 461, no. 3

South Shields: altar to Vitiris by Cr[...]. Brit. xviii (1987), 368, no. 7

Thistleton: silver plaque to Vete[ris] by Mocux[s]oma. RIB 2431.3

Vindolanda: altar to [V]ete[r]is. RIB 1697

Vindolanda: altar to Veteris. RIB 1698

Vindolanda: altar to the Veteres by Senaculus. RIB 1699

Vindolanda: altar to the Veteres by Longinus. Brit. iv (1973), 329, no. 11

Vindolanda: altar to the Veteres by Senilis. Brit. iv (1973), 329, no. 12

Vindolanda: altar to Vetir. Brit. vi (1975), 285, no. 6

Vindolanda: altar to Ve[ter]. Brit. vi (1975), 285, no. 7

Vindolanda: altar to the Vitirum. Brit. x (1979), 346, no. 8

York: altar to Veter by Primulus. RIB 660

This is the inscription with the conflation with Mogons at Netherby:

971 (altar)

DEO

MOGONT

VITIRE SAN

AEL SECUND

V S L M

And the dedications at Netherby to Hveterus and Hvetirus, alluded to already above:

969 (altar; secondary inscription)

D[EO] HV[E}TER[I]

973 (altar)

DEO HVETIRI

When I looked at the initial H-, I first thought of an aspirate, such as the H- we now use conventionally for the Greek name Hekate, originally ‘ekata.  I also thought about the Irish H-prothesis.  Neither of these ideas seemed very helpful, but I did have one last possibility come to mind: what about something akin to Old English hwyttre, hwitere, forms of the word hwit, meaning “white”? 

I thought of this because the Chesterholm Roman fort was called Vindolanda, the ‘White/Bright/Fair Moor/Heath’ (Rivet and Smith).  This fort has the second highest concentration of dedications to Veteris; only Carvoran has more.  And this means Vindolanda could, conceivably, be the cult center of Veteres.  Netherby, where we find Mogons Veteres, is hard by the ‘White Dales’ (Gwenddolau) of Myrddin.  His sister was named Gwenddydd, 'White day.' W. Gwen-, of course, is the feminine form of Gwyn, 'White.'

Old English hwīt (comparative hwītra, superlative hwītost),  “white”

Proto-Germanic *hwītaz, from Proto-Indo-European *kweit-. Cognate with Old High German wīz (German weiß), Old Norse hvítr (Swedish vit).

Spellings in declension such as hwitre, etc.

When I wrote to Professor Matasovic about this, he responded thusly:

“OE hwitere is a good formal match to Viteris. But the word for 'white' is inherited in Germanic, of course (cf. its correspondent in Lith. kviečiai 'wheat'); it is not a borrowing from Celtic. Irish h-prothesis is much older, and in Greek h- is from *s- or *sw-, so the spelling hv- in Vitires probably indicates that the name is not Celtic. The connection with Vindolanda seems attractive, if this god was really worshipped there, but the etymology will work only if the name is Germanic. Were there Germanic mercenaries or auxiliary troops in Vindolanda and other places where Vitires is attested? If so, the connection of Vitiris with 'white' is quite convincing, as far as etymologies of proper names go.”

I did not really pursue the matter until just recently, when I approached Professor Roger Tomlin on this possibility.  He responded thusly:

"Your idea that ‘Veteres’ is derived from a Germanic word for ‘white’ seems plausible to me. With the many variants of the name, including the extraordinary ‘h’–variants, it seems very likely that it was transmitted orally, and confusion with Latin uetus likely."

Bolstered by this measured endorsement of my idea, I returned to the question asked by Prof. Matasovic, viz. could I connect a German group to a place where Veteres is attested?  I soon found that answer to be YES!

The spelling Hviter- is found at Carrawburgh.  And only a very little research showed me that the Cugerni had been there, as well as at Newcastle Upon Tyne.  Here is what we know about the Cugerni in Britain as drawn from Michael G. Garrett's NON-LEGIONARY TROOPS IN BRITAIN:

Why are the Cugerni significant in the context of possible Veteres worship?  Because they came from Castra Vetera in Germany.  See

https://www.livius.org/articles/people/cugerni/

https://www.livius.org/articles/place/xanten/xanten-cut/

https://www.livius.org/articles/place/xanten/

https://www.livius.org/articles/place/xanten/xanten-vetera-ii/

Note that we do not have a satisfactory etymology for Vetera.  It is unlikely to be related to Latin vetus, veteranus, etc.  

I would propose, therefore, that Veteres (a word from a root meaning 'white') was a god or perhaps genius of the place on the Rhine who was brought into Britain by the Cugerni.  Support for this argument may be found in the identification of Veteres at Netherby with a god named Mogonti.  'Mogons' is the god of Mogontiacum at the confluence of the Rhine and the Main. 

At this point I do not feel the need to explore the Veteres name further.  In fact, I note that Rudolf Simek in his DICTIONARY OF NORTHERN MYTHOLOGY says of the matronibus Veteranehis of Germany that for this group of mother goddesses "a derivation from the name of a camp Castra Vetera is to be preferred." 

NOTE:

Where might the main shrine of Veteres have been located, assuming there was such a thing? 

Well, simplistic though it sounds, if I'm right and Veteres owes it etymology to a Germanic root meaning "white", then it may not be a coincidence that the Vindolanda Roman fort, whose name means the 'White (or bright or fair) Moor' (see Rivet and Smith's THE PLACE-NAMES OF ROMAN BRITAIN) and which is not too far to the east of Carrawburgh, just happens to have yielded the second highest number of Veteres dedications.  

The site with the most Veteres dedications is Carvoran, just a little west of Carrawburgh.  

CARVORAN AND YORK OF ROMAN DALMATIAN MILITARY UNITS: WERE ONE OF THESE PLACES THE ORIGIN OF THE ARTHUR NAME?

York and Carvoran in Relation to Four Arthurian Battle Sites, Including Camboglanna/Castlesteads

The Multangular Tower is a remnant of the Roman Legionary fortress (http://www.castlesfortsbattles.co.uk/yorkshire/york_walls_eboracum.html)

Originally built to protect the junction between the Stanegate Road and Maiden Way, Carvoran Roman Fort (known as Magna) later became part of the defences associated with Hadrian’s Wall and the northern frontier of the Roman Empire (http://www.castlesfortsbattles.co.uk/north_east/roman_army_museum_carvoran.html)

In previous articles, I've shown pretty conclusively that the 2nd century Roman officer Lucius Artorius Castus, who served in Britain as prefect of the Sixth Legion at York, was of Dalmatian origin.  Furthermore, commanders with whom he was directly or indirectly associated also seemed to have been born in Dalmatia. For these pieces, see the following links:

https://mistshadows.blogspot.com/2020/07/lucius-artorius-castus-no-sarmatian.html

https://mistshadows.blogspot.com/2020/10/lucius-artorius-castus-birth-and-death.html

A related question concerns the presence in Britain during the late Roman period of Dalmatian military units.  Such units are attested in several places, and in garrison at three.  Two forts in particular are of potential interest to us when it comes to exploring how the Roman/Latin name Artorius happened to appear in Northern Britain in 5th-6th century under its native spelling of Arthur.  

These forts are Carvoran and York. The first definitely housed a Dalmatian cohort.  I have mentioned that a memorial stone there was erected in honor of a woman from Salona in Dalmatia - the birthplace of Lucius Artorius Castus.  York is a bit more problematic, as while the actual legionary fortress was the headquarters of the Sixth, there is a good possibility the colonia across the river (the Praesidium of the NOTITIA DIGNITATUM?) was garrisoned by Dalmatian cavalry.  A corrupt Welsh TRIAD states that an Arthur Penuchel or 'the Overlord' (translation Professor Patrick Ford) was a son of Eliffer of York.  

I've pointed out that Carvoran is the next Hadrian's Wall fort to the east of Banna/Birdoswald, which I selected as Arthur's most likely birthplace in my book THE ARTHUR OF HISTORY.  Camboglanna/Castlesteads, Arthur's Camlan, is immediately to the west of Banna and is, like the latter fort, in the Irthing Valley.  The Irthing may be derived from the Cumbric word for bear, and the Artenses or 'People of the Bear' (a tribal designation preserved in the Arthwys of Welsh tradition) almost certainly resided in this valley.  The name Arthur is linked to arth, 'bear', in early Welsh poetry.  The prominence given to the draco in the admittedly questionable Galfridian tradition prompted me to look towards the Dacian garrison at Banna as the home of Arthur's father Uther Pendragon. 

Now, on the one hand, all of these seeming correspondences could merely be coincidence.  If they are and we cannot support the argument for actual ethnic continuation as a means of explaining the presence of the Artorius name in sub-Roman northern Britain[1], how could we best account for Arthur there at that time?

Well, we need only accept the proposition that, say, the sub-Roman population inhabiting the area about Carvoran had inherited the Artorius name from the earlier period.  In other words, the name alone was passed down through the generations.  The presence of the neighboring Artenses or 'People of the Bear', and a Cumbric tendency to relate the name Artorius/Arthur to their own word for bear, 'arth', may have prompted the chieftain ruling from Banna in the Irthing Valley (viz. the 'terrible/horrible chief-dragon') to adopt Arthur as his son's name. He may have been related to the people at/near Carvoran. We might go further with an unprovable, but intriguing supposition, i.e. that Uther's wife and Arthur's mother came from Carvoran. In which case, she would have brought the Arthur name with her.  We should remember that Carvoran is only 3 miles east of Birdoswald.

Obviously, we cannot discount the colonia of York as either the birthplace of Arthur or the home of his mother. We lack evidence for the occupation of Carvoran in the sub-Roman period, yet can easily supply proof of such for York. Still, given the significant geographical gap, establishing a connection between Banna and York seems a great deal more tentative.  The Welsh genealogies, however, had no problem with the additional distance, for they made Arthwys (the man of the 'People of the Bear') the father of Eliffer of York.  

We should also bear in mind the Constantine said by Geoffrey of Monmouth to be the father of Uther Pendragon, a personage derived primarily from the usurping emperor Constantine III.  This Constantine - hailing as he did from Britain - had consciously modelled himself after Constantine the Great (so much so that he named or, rather, renamed his sons after those of his more famous predecessor).  Constantine the Great is intimately associated with York. His father died there and he was proclaimed emperor there.  In Welsh tradition, Constantine father of Uther is given the epithet Waredwr, 'Deliverer, Liberator'.  This matches the Liberator title taken by Constantine the Great, which is found in Greek sources as eleutherios.  Eliffer of York is a Welsh form of Eleutherius.  I mentioned above that a corrupt Welsh TRIAD gives an Arthur as son of this Eliffer.  We know that Eliffer belongs to York not only because of his Welsh epithet ('of the Great Retinue', a poetic reference to the legion at York), but because in later Welsh literature his son Peredur is called son of Ebrauc/Efrawg, the latter being an obvious eponym for Eboracum, the Roman name of York.  

And I keep coming back to the rather remarkable Dalmatian presence in Roman Britain before and during the time of LAC:  Julius Severus, a Dalmatian, served as governor.  Statius Priscus, the governor at the time of LAC, was quite probably Dalmatian and served under Severus.  He may have been hand-picked for the governorship by Severus.  Severus's son Julius Verus also served as British governor.  Thus at least for this period some of the top positions in Britain were held by Dalmatians. 

Finally, we must not forget that LAC most likely derived considerable fame not only from his actions in Armenia, but by heroic deeds performed while he was in Britain.  This is LAC’s career as arranged by Miletic (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330926088_Lucius_Artorius_Castus_i_Liburnia):

dies natalis c. 104 miles 121-135 centurio legionis III Gallicae 135-138 centurio legionis VI Ferratae 139-142 centurio legionis II Adiutricis 143-146 centurio legionis V Macedonicae 147-150 primus pilus legionis V Macedonicae 151 praepositus classis Misenatium 152-154 praefectus castrorum legionis VI Victricis 155-162 dux legionariorum  et auxiliorum  Britannicorum adversus Armenios 162-166 procurator centenarius provinciae Liburniae 167-174

While these dates are broad, general estimates, let us assume the years for LAC in Britain in close to being correct.  I have these things as happening -

c. 157 (or even earlier; see Anthony Birley's THE ROMAN GOVERNMENT OF BRITAIN)

Gnaeus Julius Verus, Governor

Brigantes subdued

c. 158 Antonine Wall permanently abandoned

Reconstruction of Hadrian's Wall commences

160

. . . ]anus Lep. [ . . . ] =?[M(arcus) Pisib]an(i)us

Lep. [idus], Governor

161/2

Marcus Statius Priscus, Governor

In other words, LAC almost certainly played a role in major operations along both Walls.  This would have been more than enough to earn him significant glory and to cause his name to be heralded among fellow Dalmatians.  

I took my question on the survival of the Artorius name either at or near Carvoran or York  - versus actual ethnic continuity within a population at least in part descended from a Dalmatian garrison - to Professor Doctor Drazen Marsic of The University of Zadar (http://www.unizd.hr/arheologija/djelatnici/drazen-marsic).  His reply was very supportive:

"As far as I know about the subject of LAC and from the data you presented to me I think your theory has a good basis. If the LAC gained fame in Britain and if there were Dalmatians in the garrisons there, and there were, then the story of him had to / could remain in the oral tradition of local population - Dalmatian, mixed, it doesn't matter. I think the gradual loss of the Dalmatian character of the dalmatian units is not crucial on the issue. But I have a feeling that if this really happened the name Artorius / Arthur could have had some meaning close to the some word / name in local language. And maybe that also helped in the preserving of LAC's memory. Everything said here works if the LAC was Dalmatian. Artorii in Dalmatia have been followed only since the 2nd century AD and according to the opinion of my colleague prof. Glavičić [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269990062_Artorii_u_rimskoj_provinciji_Dalmaciji_The_Artorii_in_the_Roman_Province_of_Dalmatia] LAC could be the founder of a branch of Artorius family in Dalmatia... But I suppose he did not know about Marcianus' inscription from Adana province. And yes, it's really interesting one and it might be worth examining whether there were other Dalmatians in the legion of XII Keraunophoros." 

Roger Tomlin merely said, "I can't deny the possibility, of course." 

If we may allow for the name Artorius having been transmitted through the centuries in Northern Britain, then the most likely place for that to have happened would have been Carvoran (see the italicized section of Dr. Tomasz Dziurdzik's statement in Note 1 below). While such transmission cannot be proven to have occurred, I do think for the reasons expressed above that it is a reasonable assumption.  

[1]

Professor Roger Tomlin on the possibility of ethnic/cultural continuation among Dalmatian units in Roman Britain:

"I agree that Artorius Castus likely came from Salona, but his name is Italian and he would have been descended from a legionary veteran settled there. His name would not have been regarded as distinctively 'Dalmatian'.

The Carvoran tombstone (Magnis being garrisoned by Dalmatians) does indeed show a connection with Salona, but if the woman was married to a serving soldier, she would be third-century. Trouble is, the Second Cohort of Dalmatians came to Britain at the Conquest, and it is most unlikely that it recruited from Dalmatia for centuries afterwards. The only member whose origin I know is the recipient of the diploma of AD 135, and he came from Trier. The bulk of the evidence shows that frontier units recruited locally – true, many recruits would have been descended from earlier members of the unit, so you may have some Dalmatian DNA, not that they would have known it – and I can't imagine that a 'Dalmatian' tradition lasted for centuries at Carvoran or elsewhere.

Likewise the equites Dalmatae at Praesidium. These units are thought to be originally detachments from Gallienus' field army when it was broken up. Centuries of continued recruitment from Dalmatia is most unlikely.

A Latin nomen such as Artorius would be transmitted by descent, by manumission of slaves, as a compliment to the patron who gained one citizenship. None of these mechanisms seems likely with a mid-second century officer in Britain whose military distinction was only achieved after he had left Britain. 

I am all for continuity, but I don't think we can accept this one."

And the following from Dr. Tomasz Dziurdzik of the University of Warsaw, who has studied the Dalmatian Roman units in detail:

"Please take into consideration that I am by no means an expert on Britannia, however, if I can offer you some of my thoughts, I would suggest the following:

1. the name Artorius indeed appears several times in Dalmatia, but it seems to be limited to the part of the population of non-native descent - the settlers from Italia. Not only the name itself is of foreign origin, but the assumption that it was only used by this part of Dalmatia's population is strengthened by several factors. Firstly, there is no example I can find of the name attested in an inscription from the hinterland (where there were fewer Italic settlers than on the coast). Moreover, it is never present in an inscription together with any names that are considered "local" (mostly Illyrian). Additionally, when it is used, the persons mentioned in the inscriptions bear names which follow the Roman naming practices, and the use of tria nomina suggests that they were Roman citizens - which is of importance for further consideration. I believe that "LAC" himself was of settler origin and from an onomastic point of view should be viewed as an "outside" element in his native province.

2. Turning to the "Dalmatian" elements in Britannia, the problem with Late Roman "Dalmatian" units is that they had little or virtually no connection to Dalmatia at all. The units at Branodunum and Praesidio belonged to the class of "equites Dalmatae". They were either created from a part of the original formation (which was named after the place it was probably organized from remnants of other units, not after the ethnic origin of soldiers) and sent to Britannia; or created in Britannia as an emulation of a particular class of light cavalry. So far I haven't been able to find a single soldier of the entire class in the whole Empire who I could say with any degree of confidence was of Dalmatian origin. On the contrary, there are multiple cases of non-Dalmatians serving in such units, and in most of those cases they were recruited somewhere in the near vicinity of where the unit was garrisoned. 

As such I believe only the unit at Magnis could possibly be considered for your idea, as it is a cohort from the early Principate (cohors II Delmatarum), when ethnic/regional recruitment was a thing. Indeed it appears that there were still ethnic Dalmatians in the unit when it arrived there in the early 2nd century (or earlier, the exact date is not really clear from what I see). It may be possible that some kind of "cultural memory" existed in the area they were garrisoned, especially if some of them arrived with their spouses, but it would be difficult to prove without a very detailed study - and very much dependant on the available evidence. Even if so, if naming customs could survive 400+ years in a community surrounded by "others" is another question in itself... Especially since later recruitment, while often included sons of soldiers, would contribute to the constant "dilution" of the original ethnic composition of the unit, as would intermarriage with neighbouring groups.

3. However, I strongly believe that the people serving in this unit would not be using the name Artorius at all. The group which would use the name Artorius in Dalmatia, the Italic settlers, would simply not contribute to the unit. In the early Principate, when regional recruitment was still practiced for this unit, it was the non-citizens who would be drafted in Dalmatia. It was in fact a matter of policing the provincial population - sending some of the young men of the most unreliable part of the population away from their area of origin decreased the chances of any unrest. As such, if any traditional names were to survive among the offsprings of soldiers from Dalmatia in Britannia, I believe it would be the names they themselves carried, the "local" names.

To sum up, I think that unfortunately the possibility of the "Dalmatian connection" for the name Artorius arriving in Britain, surviving long enough and turning into Arthur is too weak to follow. I understand how you came to this interesting idea, but unfortunately the combination of local, Dalmatian realities & the way Roman recruitment worked make it rather impossible."

And this from Professor Dino Dimicheli from the University of Zagreb:

 "I'm glad you're trying to expand some new thoughts and ideas about

Artorius and Dalmatian population in Roman Britain.

The Artorius' place of origin is Salona or its surroundings, several

scholars pointed to that. Beside the most popular inscription, there is

another one mentioning his achievements from the second half of his

career.  I presume you're familiar with the volume published after the

international conference about Artorius held in Podstrana.

The linguistic path from Artorius to Arthur is explainable, but one of the

most acceptable theories to link these two characters (if there is a link

at all) is that the name Artorius should be understood as a title whic was

given to the extraordinary individuals for their bravery or some similar

qualities. It means that Artorius was so popular for his achievements

among the population in Britain that he became a legend and his name

remained as a metaphor for a man with exceptional leading qualities.

I don't know if the members of Dalmatian cohorts garrisoned in Britain had

some active role in keeping this legend alive, but I must say that in that

period (late 2nd century and later) I'm not sure how many Dalmatians we

can expect in the Dalmatian cohort in Britain. Namely, after one or two

generations of its establisment, almost every national cohort recruited

its newcomers either locally or from other provinces. After more than a

century of its establishment the name does not prove the ethnic majority

of the cohort. I can't claim that in second half of the 2nd century

Dalmatian peregrines didn't serve in Britain in larger scale, but

onomastic picture doesn't corroborate this because of the small number of

monuments. Aurelia Aia, which you mentioned, is only an indirect proof

that in the 3rd century there were Dalmatians served in Britain.

Unfortunately, we don't was it Dalmatian cohort or some other unit.

Your opinion does have sense in theory, and it is very interesting, but at

this moment is a bit stretched since one cannot confirm it due to the lack

of the epigraphic monuments.

Though, it seems that the Dalmatian generals were quite popular in Britain

during second century :) You mentioned Sextus Julius Severus, his son was

also governor there, than Artorius (although not as senator). In the third

century there was Desidienus Aemilianus*, prefect (perhaps of cohort I

Tungrorum, RIB 1589), who also could have been from Salona.

You've mentioned the possible Dalmatian origin of M. Statius Priscus.

The Statii were quite important family in Dalmatia, especially in Risinium."

I would add that there is some evidence from stones in Britain of homeland recruitment continuing for several centuries:

http://lukeuedasarson.com/NDDuxBritCohIIDal.html

Although no other Dalmatian infantry cohorts are attested in the Notitia, many Dalmatian cavalry units are. Two of them are listed as being in Britian: the equites Dalmatae Branodunenses (132.5) under the Comes litoris Saxonici per Britanniam, and the equites Dalmatae (154.3), under the Dux. These units were presumably originally recruited in Illyrian Dalmatia, although to what extent they maintained any ethnic connections over the years with the region is unclear. Records from other units (e.g. RIB 3332) demonstrate that they must have recruited purposefully (if not exclusively) from their "homeland" for centuries.

https://romaninscriptionsofbritain.org/inscriptions/3332

cives probably refers both to ‘Gauls’ and to ‘Britons’, but the Latin is ambiguous. Sense likewise requires that concordes refer to both, although word-order applies it to the ‘Britons’ alone. The only other dedications in Britain by cives (plural) are by national groups within a military unit: see RIB 1593 and 1594 (Tuihanti), 2100 (Raeti), 2148 (Italici et Norici). The term civis Gallus is very rare, and Birley shows that cives Galli must be a collective term for soldiers recruited in Gallia Lugdunensis who were serving in the cohors IIII Gallorum, the third-century garrison of Vindolanda.

* J. Wilkes, http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/10470/2/10470_7267-vol2.PDF: "The prefect at Housesteads (of I Tungrorum) bears an unusual nomen not found in any province except Dalmatia where Desidieni occur

amonst the honestiores of Salonae.  The name appears to be manufactured from an Illyrian root and we can confidently suggest a Dalmatian origo for the prefect at Housesteads."  

Housesteads or Vercovicium is near the center of Hadrian's Wall.

Breeze's Article on the Etymology of the Irthing River Place-Name

River Irthing Below the Birdoswald Roman Fort

Supplying this for my readers, who have requested it a number of times...

Breeze, Andrew, Celts, bears, and the River Irthing

Archaeologia Aeliana Series 5

Volume 34

Pages 152 - 153

2005

https://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archiveDS/archiveDownload?t=arch-3433-1/dissemination/AAseries5/AA534typeset/archael534-151-153-notes.pdf

I have also suggested the Ceidio son of Arthwys, my candidate for the historical Arthur of the 5th-6th centuries, may have left his name in the Irthing Valley region: 

https://mistshadows.blogspot.com/2020/01/ceidio-son-of-arthwys-and-powcady.html

Arthwys (earlier *Artenses) is an eponym designating the 'People of the Bear' who lived along the River Irthing:

https://mistshadows.blogspot.com/2019/04/the-bear-cult-of-romansub-roman-cumbria.html

UTHER PENDRAGON AS LORD OF DINAS EMRYS: ARTHUR'S ORIGIN IN PRE-GALFRIDIAN TRADITION

Dinas Emrys Hillfort, Gwynedd, Wales

Arthurian scholars have, in my opinion, ignored the importance of Dinas Emrys for far too long.  I was thinking about the hillfort only just this morning.  Why?  Because I have encountered more resistence to the notion that Arthur was anything other than what tradition insists he was: a war-leader (or king) with an origin in Cornwall, specifically at Tintagel.  Any theory which claims to have "discovered" a historical candidate for Arthur elsewhere will never be accepted.  This is because no rival tradition appears to exist.

Geoffrey of Monmouth's pseudo-history proved to be extremely influential and cast a long shadow.  To this day students of Welsh Arthurian literature are not sure what is actual pre-Galfridian tradition and what has been adapted to Geoffrey's treatment of the subject.  But is there still extant, no matter how buried beneath the layers of medieval romance, some remnant of a rival account to that which is offered in THE HISTORY OF THE KINGS OF BRITAIN?

Many of us have been both intrigued and puzzled by the folktale that became attached to Dinas Emrys. I myself have written many articles on the subject.  The tendency, I think, is to make the whole question of Dinas Emrys too complex.  It may be a great deal simpler than we have assumed to be the case.

To begin, the presence of Ambrosius there is important for only one reason: his exhuming of the dragons - dragons which were, originally, great chieftains or warriors whose cremated remains were placed in urns.  While such urns may well have been exposed when excavating a pool, the introduction of Ambrosius into the story was facilitated because St. Ambrose (whose father is the Ambrosius Aurelianus of Gildas and subsequent sources) exhumed two saints.  The name of one of these saints was Celsus, a Latin name whose meaning exactly matches that of Uther (see https://mistshadows.blogspot.com/2018/01/st-ambrose-and-exhumation-of-saints.html).  We find the name Celsus paired with that of the god Alator from a Roman inscription (https://mistshadows.blogspot.com/2019/04/arthur-and-god-alator-of-south-shields.html).  Alator has been associated with the Aladur of an Arthurian poem.  There Arthur is said to descend from Aladur.

Uther was said to have been buried at Amesbury, a confusion for Dinas Emrys. 

All of this may seem mere coicidence, I suppose.  Except for two things.  First, Uther is said to be related to the men of Caer Dathal, which I have identified with Craig-y-Dinas in Gwynedd (see https://mistshadows.blogspot.com/2020/05/ive-been-asked-difficult-question-why.html).  There is a good chance that Geoffrey's Tintagel is a relocation of Caer Dathal. Dathal is probably of Irish foundation, and that would help account for why all Arthurs that follow the more famous one belong to Irish-descended dynasties in Britain.

Second, Eliwlad son of Madog son of Uther appears to belong not in Cornwall, but at Nantlle just a little east of Craig-y-Dinas (see https://mistshadows.blogspot.com/2020/05/a-shocking-discovery-real-location-of.html).  

Other factors come into play, of course, such as the Galfridian claim that Uther came from Llydaw (Brittany).  Llyn Llydaw is the source of the river that runs by Dinas Emrys.  Mabon is said to be the servant of Uther, and Mabon, like the god Lleu, is placed in Nantlle (see "The Stanzas of the Graves"). 

The simplest explanation, therefore, is to see Dinas Emrys as belonging to Uther Pendragon.  Ambrosius may be dispensed with entirely.  I've suggested that it may have been thought the 4th century father of the saint accompanid Constans to Britain (https://mistshadows.blogspot.com/2020/05/why-ambrosius-aurelianus-was-put-in.html). That would have been the nucleus of the legend.  There is no reason to think that he was ever at Dinas Emrys.  Geoffrey of Monmouth clouded the whole thing by identifying Dinas Emrys with Amesbury and its Stonehenge monument.

If this is all there is to it, then what do we make of an Arthur, part Irish, born in Gwynedd?  How would such a man have become the hero of the Dark Age British?  And where, exactly, were his battles fought?

Well, I think it's important to remember that the Welsh tradition may be as faulty in terms of recording actual historical truth as the Galfridian. So while Geoffrey of Monmouthmay have "stolen" Arthur from NW Wales, what little we can actually know about Arthur (derived from the list of battles found in the HISTORIA BRITTONUM and the Welsh Annals) strongly suggests he belongs to the North.  Not to Cornwall and not to Gwynedd.  The name Arthur itself is demonstrably from Latin Artorius, and it is almost certain the name survived in the North either in the vicinity of York or near the center of Hadrian's Wall.  That is the argument I put forward in my book THE ARTHUR OF HISTORY, and at this point in my research I see no reason to change it.  

The Welsh, like everyone else, wanted to claim Arthur as their own.  As the lands once controlled by Arthur came under English domination and remained that way, his place of origin, residence and sphere of activity was removed to places that were still thoroughly Celtic: Wales, Cornwall and even Brittany.